MEDIEVAL MONGOLS

(840 - 1399 CE)

 Ikh Menggu Uls (Mongolian, “Great Mongol Nation”)

 

This page is dedicated to the armies of the Mongols from the time of the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate (ca. 840-848 CE) and the emergence of the five Turko-Mongolic khanates (those of the Tatars, Keraites/Keraits/Khereids, Naimans, Merkits/Mergids, and Zubus/Dadas) on the Mongolian Plateau (ca. 840-907 CE), to the subjugation of these khanates as tributary allies of the Khitan Empire (ca. 907-1125 CE). It also includes the Shiwei of northern Manchuria from the time of their independence from the Uyghurs (ca. 840-907 CE), to the migration of the Menggu Shiwei into eastern Mongolia (ca. 848-907 CE), the period of Khitan dominance over the Shiwei (ca. 907-1125 CE), the rise of the Borjigin/Borjigid clan (ca. 850-1130 CE), and the foundation of the Khamag Khanate (ca. 1130-1206 CE). The army portrayed above is that of the Mongol Empire founded by Temüjin Chinggis Kha'an (ca. 1206-1227 CE), but it would also be suitable for use in the armies for the period of expansion of Temujin's empire under his successors (ca. 1227-1259 CE), as well as the power struggles and civil war following the death of Möngke Kha'an that led to the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire (ca. 1259-1294 CE). With minimal anachronism, these figures could also be used to portray the armies of the steppe-based Mongol successor states—the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia (1225-1340 CE) and the Northern Yuan Khanate in Mongolia (1370-1399 CE)—as well as the independent-minded tribes of the Western and Eastern Mongols that resisted the overlordship of the Toluids (ca. 1260-1301 CE). This gallery and these notes do not cover the other successor states of the Mongol Empire—the Ilkhanate of Persia (1256-1335 CE), the Yuan Dynasty of China (1271-1368 CE), and the Khanate of the Golden Horde in Russia (1241-1502 CE)—nor the four successor states of the Golden Horde—the Sibir Khanate (1490-1598 CE), the Khanate of Kazan (1438-1552 CE), the Astrakhanate (1466-1556 CE), and the Khanate of the Crimea (1441-1783 CE). Nor does this gallery include the two successor states of the Chagatai Khanate—the Western Chagatai Khanate (1340-1370 CE) and the Eastern Chagatai Khanate (1340-1680 CE). The states not covered by this gallery saw significant assimilation of the Mongol ruling elite with subject peoples, the development of different (i.e., hybrid) martial systems, and the adoption of regional aesthetic norms (thus making the warriors of these states look significantly different than those featured here).

 

The Mongol Empire was the largest territorially contiguous empire in history, and the second largest empire ever—at 12.74 million square miles, with a population of over 110 million inhabitants (a quarter of the world's population in 1200 CE), the Mongols are edged out only by the British Empire circa 1922, which reached its apex at a little over 13 million square miles, with a population of 458 million inhabitants (world population had grown significantly since 1200), although the British Empire was not territorially contiguous. The rulers of the Mongol Empire, whom we call “Mongols,” were actually an amalgamation of ancient Mongolic, Tungusic, Turkic, and Samoyed peoples, many of whom originated outside of the land we now know as “Mongolia” (i.e., the Mongolian Plateau). The Mongolian Plateau was originally inhabited by a Mongolic people known as the Xiongnu (pronounced, shung-new)(ca. 335 BCE-155 CE), and after the Xiongnu Empire (209 BCE-53 CE) was shattered by the Han Dynasty of China, another Mongolic people who originated in Manchuria—known as the Xianbei (pronounced, sheen-bay)—migrated onto the Mongolian Plateau (ca. 155-450 CE) and assimilated the remnant tribes of the Xiongnu. The Xianbei were initially a confederation of different tribal kingdoms, several of whom migrated into northern China following the collapse of the Han Dynasty (ca. 220-589 CE), but those that continued to live on the Mongolian Plateau were eventually united under the leadership of the Nirun Xianbei (330-555 CE)(a.k.a., the Róurán, Rúrú, Juan juan or Tántán). The Nirun were overthrown by a group of former vassals from the Altai Mountain region in western Mongolia known as the Gaoche/Tiele, whose ruling Ashina clan founded the Kök Türük Empire (ca. 450-744 CE)(a.k.a., the Göktürks or Tūjué). The Gaoche/Tiele were among the first of the Central Asian Turkic peoples—Turkic culture arose when the Samoyed Dingling peoples from southern Siberia migrated into eastern Kazakhstan and assimilated with the eastern Aryan and Ugric peoples that lived there (ca. 300-200 BCE). Several early proto-Turkic groups subsequently arose in Kazakhstan and western Mongolia (the Altai region), and these were then heavily influenced by the Xiongnu and Xianbei, especially after several groups of Xiongnu fled the collapse of the Xiongnu Empire and settled in eastern Kazakhstan, and after the Nirun Xianbei expanded into eastern Kazakhstan (ca. 490-555 CE). As mentioned above, the Xianbei originated on the steppes of Manchuria—to the east of Mongolia—and were originally part of the Donghu federation (600-177 BCE). Following a terrible defeat at the hands of the Xiongnu, the Donghu federation broke apart, with the Xianbei dominating northern Manchuria and the Wuhuan inhabiting southern Manchuria. Both became tributary allies of the Xiongnu Empire (ca. 177 BCE-155 CE), but when the Xiongnu were overthrown by the Han Dynasty of China, the Wuhuan were forced to become a “dependant-state” (zhuhou) of the Empire of China, while the Xianbei expanded onto the Mongolian Plateau and assimilated the remaining Xiongnu there (ca. 155-555 CE). Three main tribal federations of Xianbei came to dominate Manchuria—the Murong/Muren (ca. 155-337 CE), who lived on the North China Plateau (modern Hinggan and Xilingol); the Yuwen (ca. 155-345 CE), who dominated the Liao River region (modern Liaoning, Chifeng, and Tongliao); and the Shiwei (ca. 155-789 CE), who dominated the lands between the Songhua and Mudan rivers (modern Heilongjiang and Jilin). The Murong and Yuwen became embroiled in the Xianbei migrations into northern China (ca. 220-581 CE), particularly that of the Tuoba Xianbei, who migrated from northeastern Mongolia into northern China and founded the Northern Wei Kingdom (386-535 CE). The Murong expanded to the east and conquered the Yuwen, thereby creating the Yan Empire (337-436 CE)—the Yan state initially controlled only southern Manchuria (north of the Gulf of Pechihli), but under emperor Xianwu, Shandong was conquered (south of the Gulf of Pechihli). Following a bitter dynastic struggle (ca. 284 CE) some elements of the Murong followed the Murong prince, Tuyuhun, and migrated west along the Yellow River to conquer the Qiang tribes in the Qilian Mountain region of western China, resulting in the Tuyuhun Kingdom (285-670 CE). The Yan Empire collapsed during the reign of the usurper, Feng Hong (430-436 CE). The Northern Wei conquered Shandong, the Nirun conquered southern Manchuria as far east as the Liao River, and the Korean Kingdom of Goguryeo expanded across the Changbai Mountains into southern Manchuria, as far west as the Liao River (some groups of Murong are believed to have fled northward into the lands of the Shiwei, where they were assimilated). When the Nirun were overthrown by the Gaoche/Tiele, two former Yuwen groups re-emerged in southern Manchuria—the Tatabi (a.k.a., the Xi) and the Khitans (a.k.a., the Xidans)—who formed the Kumo Xi federation (ca. 555-847 CE). The Kumo Xi later became a tributary state of the Tang Dynasty of China (jimifuzhou)(ca. 628 CE), but when the Tatabi/Xi rebelled against the Tang (ca. 847 CE), they were virtually annihilated by the Tang (the survivors were forcibly resettled in northern China and were assimilated). The Khitans thus became the masters of southern Manchuria. By that time, the Göktürks/Tūjué had also been overthrown by an alliance between the Tang Dynasty of China and the Uyghur/Uighur Turks—a subgroup of the eastern Göktürks that originated in Zungharia (modern northern Xinjiang)—and the Uyghur Khaganate (744-848 CE) quickly expanded to encompass Zungharia, the northeastern quarter of the Tarim Basin, western China (Gansu and Qinghai), all of Mongolia, southern Siberia (from the Yenisei River region in the west to the Sea of Japan in the east), and northern Manchuria (i.e., the Shiwei tribes). The Khitans were often dominated by the Uyghurs as tributary allies, but they also experienced periods of independence.     

 

The history of the Mongols really doesn't start to take on clarity until the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate (ca. 840-848 CE). In 840 CE, there was a massive volcanic eruption in the Changbai Mountains (Mount Baekdu/Paektu), which form the border between Korea and Manchuria. So much ash was thrown into the atmosphere that northern Asia was thrown into a decade-long climate shift that resulted in short, cool summers and long, severely cold winters. The royal horse herds of the Uyghurs, which were kept on the grasslands of the Mongolian Plateau, died in droves during these severe winters, and since the Turkic military system relied heavily on cavalry, this was particularly devastating. The Kyrgyz were a Samoyed-Turkic people that lived between the Yenisei River and Lake Baikal in southern Siberia from the end of the third century BCE (ca. 201 BCE), and although they had a similar status to that of the Khitans vis-à-vis the Uyghur Khaganate from about 758 CE (at which time they became semi-independent tributary allies of the Uyghurs), they had been particularly rebellious, and when the Uyghurs demanded that subject peoples such as the Kyrgyz, Khitans, and Shiwei help them replenish their herds, the Kyrgyz promptly rebelled, invaded Mongolia, and sacked the Uyghur capital (ca. 848 CE). They then unexpectedly turned around and went home laden with booty, abandoning Mongolia. The Uyghurs also simply abandoned Mongolia and retreated to their territories in western China. This left the central steppes of the Mongolian Plateau only thinly inhabited by the Zubu/Dada tribes (descendants of the Suibu Xianbei), while the Altai Mountain region (southwestern Mongolia) was inhabited by the Naimans, the Sayan Mountain region (northwestern Mongolia) was inhabited by the Keraites/Keraits/Khereids, the Gobi Desert region (southeastern Mongolia) was inhabited by the Tatars, and the Orkhon River region (northeastern Mongolia) was inhabited by the Merkits/Mergids (these are all considered to be Turko-Mongolic groups that resulted from assimilation between the Xiongnu, Xianbei, and eastern Turks). The Shiwei of northern Manchuria also gained independence with the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate, and a subgroup of the Shiwei known as the Menggu/Mengwu migrated into eastern Mongolia (ca. 848-907 CE), forcing the Merkits to migrate westwards as far as the Lake Baikal region of southern Siberia and northern Mongolia. The Shiwei that remained in northern Manchuria became known as the Da Shiwei (“Great Shiwei”), and those in Mongolia as the Menggu Shiwei (“Mongol Shiwei”). However, the big winners that emerged as a regional power following the disintegration of the Uyghur Khaganate was the Khitans, who conquered northern Manchuria, Outer Manchuria (as far east as the Changbai Mountains and the Sea of Japan), Mongolia, and parts of northern China (ca. 907-1125 CE). The Zubus of central Mongolia rebelled against Khitan domination several times (ca. 983-1003, 1036, and 1090-1000 CE), and after the last of these rebellions was crushed, the Khitans invited the Menggu Shiwei to take their lands. The Menggu Shiwei became the Khitans' favored tributary allies in Mongolia thereafter (ca. 1000-1125 CE). With the collapse of the Khitan Empire (ca. 1115-1125 CE), however, the four Turko-Mongol tribal federations re-emerged—i.e., the Tatars (Gobi Desert region), the Khereids (Sayan region), the Merkits (Lake Baikal region), and the Naimans (Altai region)—while the territories that had once belonged to the Zubus and Merkits (the Orkhon region and the central steppes) were dominated by the Menggu Shiwei. The Khamag Khanate (1040-1206 CE) was founded by Khabul Khan of the Borjigin/Borjigid clan of the Menggu Shiwei. The Menggu Shiwei had been the most loyal of the tributary allies of the Khitan Empire, and after the Khitan ruling clans were exiled to Kedun (ca. 1125-1130 CE)—a Khitan outpost in central Mongolia near modern Ulaanbaatar—the Borjigin clan had taken the lead in repelling several Jurchen military thrusts into Mongolia that were aimed at finishing off the Khitans (the Jurchen were a Tungusic people from Outer Manchuria, former tributary allies of the Khitans, that overthrew the Khitan Empire). When the Khitans migrated west into Central Asia (ca.1131-1134 CE), the tribes of Mongolia fell into an anarchic period of inter-tribal wars and dynastic struggles. Into this maelstrom came Temüjin (1162-1227 CE), the great-grandson of Khabul Khan, who came to power following a dynastic struggle within the Khamag Khanate (ca. 1197 CE), then conquered the Merkits and Tatars (ca. 1197-1200 CE), and when some of his Merkit rivals fled to the Naimans, they too were conquered (ca. 1200-1203 CE). Temujin also intervened in a dynastic struggle within the Khereid federation, and annexed the territories of the Khereids (ca. 1203 CE). Finally, at the Khurildai (i.e., grand council of clan chiefs) of 1206 CE, Temujin was declared Chinggis Kha'an (“Greatest Emperor”). As a symbol of the unity of the Mongol peoples he had forged, Temujin declared that all the free tribesmen living under his rule at that time (Tatars, Khereids, Merkits, Naimans, and Khamags) would thence be known—collectively—as the Menggu (“Mongolians” or “Mongols”), thus de-emphasizing tribal identities and emphasizing common nationality. “Menggu” is how the Mongol name is rendered in the Mongolian language to this day, and it is the cognate form of the English word “Mongol.” 

 

Temujin was nothing if not ambitious. He ordered that the Uyghur script, which had become a kind of written lingua franca along the Silk Road, be adapted to accommodate the writing of the Mongolic languages (or at least a systematized form of the dialects that existed at that time), resulting in the development of the classical Mongolian script (Mongyol bičig). He promulgated a law code—the Yassa (“Decrees”)—that did more than encapsulate Mongolic traditions, but was essentially a template for social engineering that was aimed at transforming the formerly disparate peoples of Mongolia into a single nationality. He formalized the meeting of the kurultai (Mongolian, khuruldai, Turkic, khurultay)—the grand council of clan chiefs—into a quasi-parliamentary body, and he created a system of government in which chiefs, bureaucrats, and military commanders were chosen by merit, rather than through dynastic connections. Temujin established a system of posts (yam) throughout his domains, each with dispatch riders and remounts, that were used by messengers to create a postal system, the efficiency of which was not surpassed until the invention of the telegraph (as the empire grew, this system was extended into the newly conquered realms). Although the Mongols proved to be highly tolerant of the many religious systems they encountered, and Nestorian Christianity (Naimans and Khereids) and Buddhism (most of the Mongol tribes) had already affected the development of Mongolian traditional religions at the time of Temujin's accession, he promoted a quasi-monotheistic religion based on ancient Turko-Mongolic animism (i.e., Tengrism) that focused on the importance of the “Eternal Blue Sky.” Indeed, he tied his successes to his belief in his spiritual power, and the fact that he had become a conduit of the will of Tengri, and he promoted the idea that Mongol success in war was inevitable as long as the Mongols stayed true to the will of Tengri. Mongol religious tolerance derived from the fact that they considered themselves to be the chosen people of Tengri, and that they and only they could have a special relationship with Tengri, so it little mattered what beliefs were followed by others.

 

The Mongols went on to conquer the Tangut Empire in western China (campaign, 1205-1210 CE), the Kyrgyz/Kirghiz Khaganate in southern Siberia (1207-1219), the Jurchen/Jurchin Kin Empire in Manchuria and northern China (1211-1235), the Gürkhanate of Karakhitai in Central Asia (1216-1218), the Kimek Khanate in Central Asia (1218-1220), the Shahdom of Kwarezmia in Iran (1219-1220), the Kipchak/Qipchaq Khaganate in southern Russia (1220-1224),  the Kingdom of Kashmir in northern India (1222-1327), the Emirate of Volga Bulgaria in northeastern Russia (1223-1236), the Kingdom of Alania in the north Caucasus (1238-1239), the Kingdom of Goryeo in Korea (1231-1259), the Southern Song Dynasty of China (1235-1279), the Grand Principality of Rus in western Russia (1236-1242), the Kingdom of Dali in Tibet (1240-1241), the Abbasid Caliphate in Mesopotamia (1251-1259), and the Kingdom of Đại Việt in northern Vietnam (1257-1287). The Mongols also destroyed the Ayyubid Sultanate of Syria (1244-1260) and the Order of the Ḥashshāshīn (i.e., the Assassins) in the Elburz Mountains of Iran (1253-1275), and annihilated the armies of the Kingdoms of Hungary and Poland (both in 1241). The Kingdom of Croatia, the Kingdom of Serbia, and the Thracian provinces of the Byzantine Empire were all subjected to devastation and plundering. The Principality of Antioch and the County of Tripoli (both European crusader states in the Levant), the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, the Empire of Trebizond in the western Caucasus, the Uyghur city-state of Qocho/Idiqut in western China, the southern Vietnamese Kingdom of Chăm Pa, the Caucasian Kingdom of Georgia, the Republic of Novgorod and Pskov in northern Russia, the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia, the Bulgarian Empire in the Balkans, the Sukhothai Kingdom in Thailand, the Kingdom of Pagan in Burma, and many of the small tribal polities of Malay and Sumatra were all forced to become tributary states of the Mongol Empire and/or its successor states. Europe was spared conquest only by the timely demise of Ögedei (Temüjin's third son and primary heir) and the subsequent power struggle within the Mongol Empire (ca. 1241-1251 CE).

 

Indeed, the service record of Mongol arms is superlative and unmatched by any other pre-modern imperial power, fighting victoriously in a wide range of topographies against an equally wide range of military systems, ultimately conquering an empire that stretched from the Hungarian Plain in the west to the tip of the Korean peninsula in the east, and from the taiga (Eurasian boreal forest) in the north to Mesopotamia, northern India, and southeast Asia in the south. This gave the Mongol Khaganate vast resources, a monopoly on trade along the Silk Road and most other major overland trade routes, access to the technological and manpower resources of the Islamic world and China, and providing them with a huge number of subject peoples whose wealth could be taxed and whose labor could be exploited. Many of the nomadic peoples of the empire were already heterogenous polyethnic tribal confederacies, and they more or less seamlessly assimilated with the Mongols and became an important supplementary source of military manpower—Turks, Khitans, Alans, Bulgars, and Jurchen all seem to have been thoroughly Mongolized during this period. The urban and agrarian civilizations such as those in China, the Central Asian city-states, Korea, Persia, and Mesopotamia helped the Mongols overcome some of their earlier limitations, providing them with experts and technologies (and sometimes masses of expendable captives) in areas like siege warfare, artillery (tension, torsion, gunpowder, rockets), and naval operations. The logistical sophistication, understanding of strategic principles, and extreme mobility of Mongol armies and communication networks were truly amazing, allowing the Mongols to carry out massive campaigns on multiple fronts that were well-supplied, well-led, coherent, and carefully targeted for maximum effect—Mongol armies could travel up to 100 miles per day, a screen of capable scouts kept its commanders constantly informed (and rarely surprised), and widely separated columns on the march were kept in constant communication (and thus could coordinate their actions). The post system (yam) of staging outposts (örtege or örtöö) that had been put in place—each outpost supplied with food and remounts every 25 miles—meant that messages could be sent from one end of the empire to the other (over 5,000 miles on horseback) in as little as four weeks. It has been estimated that at the height of the empire (ca. 1227 CE) the Mongols had a total army strength of 125,000 men, and at least twice that number of auxiliaries (for a total of about 375,000 men). The Mongol high command was divided into three spheres or theaters of operation—the Army of the Left/East (Junghar), the Army of the Right/West (Baraunghar), and the Army of the Center (Khol). The Army of the Center was based at the imperial capital (a tent city) of Karakorum in Central Mongolia, but it was used to reinforce the other two divisions as needed. The core of the Khol were the units of the Imperial Guard (Keshik), whose troopers were recruited from the best men of all the units in the army. The Imperial Guard was also used as a kind of command school where the sons of nobles or veteran commanders worked side-by-side with proven warriors to learn the Mongol art of war. As the empire grew, warriors of loyal subject peoples (e.g., Alans, Khitans, Turks) were also recruited into the Keshik. When taking personal command of an army in the field, the kha'an would be accompanied by a Battle Guard (Khorchin) of picked troops from the Keshik (the best of the best). The Mongols also followed a no-mercy, total war philosophy—civilians were fair game, captives were often herded before the army and driven into enemy formations (or against fortifications) to confuse and demoralize (or soak up missiles), spying and spreading misinformation preceded any campaign, devastating whole districts and kingdoms was common (sometimes without occupation), and harrying defeated foes to hunt down as many survivors as possible—all earned the Mongols a fearsome reputation. In the words of the Great Khan himself:

 

The greatest joys in life are these—to conquer your enemies and drive them before you,

to rob them of their wealth, to hear the wails of their dear ones,

and to take their wives and daughters for your own. 

 

Temujin Chinggis Kha'an (a.k.a., Genghis Khan) originally planned to divide the Mongol Empire among his four sons, each ruling a portion of the empire as his personal khanate (each a khan, or “king”), the eldest son having the additional dignity of ruling as supreme kha'an (i.e., “emperor”). Jochi was the eldest, but he died six months before Temujin, necessitating a change of plans. Ultimately, Temujin's third son, Ögedei, would succeed him as kha'an and rule the lands between Lake Balkhash and western Mongolia—he was instrumental in completing the conquest of China. Tolui, the youngest son, inherited the Mongolian homeland, and his son and heir, Kublai, eventually became kha'an and the first emperor of the Yuan Dynasty (uniting Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and China under his rule). One of Tolui's other sons, Hülegü, was tasked with building on his grandfather's conquest of the Shahdom of Kwarizmia, and after successfully invading the Abbasid Caliphate he founded the Ilkhanate of Persia (including Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and Kashmir). Chagatai, Temujin's second son, inherited much of Central Asia (Transoxania, Sogdiana, and the eastern and southern Kazakh steppes) and founded the Chagatai Khanate. The westernmost lands occupied by the Mongols at the time of Temujin's death included southern Russia (the former Kipchak Khaganate) and western Kazakhstan (the former Kimek Khanate)—these were given to Jochi's eldest sons, Batu and Orda. They finished the conquest of Volga Bulgaria, Alania, and Russia, and after Orda died while trying to extend Mongol rule into Poland, Bohemia, and Moravia, Batu founded the Khanate of the Golden Horde (including the Pontic-Caspian and western Kazakh steppes, with overlordship of Russia and the northern Caucasus). Although Temujin's dream of universal empire did not immediately die, the cooperation of his successors gradually gave way to rivalry, and the various successor states of the Mongol Empire grew increasingly parochial, the subject populations outside Mongolia gradually re-asserted their cultural heritage and political power (and some regained their independence), and by the end of the thirteenth century CE the empire broke up into several independent polities.

 

Unsurprisingly, the tactical stance, equipment, and appearance of Mongol troops were similar to those of the earlier Turko-Mongolic peoples (particularly the Uyghurs, Kyrgyz, and Khitans), with whom they shared many cultural elements. In fact, it is often difficult to tell the difference between Turkic, Karakhitan, and Mongol warriors in contemporary art. There were basically only two types of mounted soldier—heavy cavalrymen and light cavalrymen. Both were primarily horse archers, using hit-and-fade tactics, although the heavy cavalry would lead the charge when an opponent had been maneuvered into a disadvantageous position. During the early nomadic period, the division between these two troop types was largely informal, heavy cavalry simply being the product of the ability of nobles to better armor and equip themselves and their retainers. However, when Temujin came to power he moved to revolutionize Mongol society by institutionalizing an idealized system of Mongol culture (best represented in his codification of traditional Mongol law, the Yassa). This included emphasis on common Mongol nationality in opposition to tribal particularism, and the development of a cohesive military system that elevated Mongol tactics to the level of a martial art. In the development of this military system, Temujin is believed to have been heavily influenced by the practices of the imperial Khitans, and possibly also the Tanguts, both of whom eschewed the informal tribal structure of their society in order to develop a standardized system of recruiting and maintaining units of soldiers whose equipment and training was uniform, and whose command structure was firmly subordinated to the emperor. Temujin broke down the tribal organization of Mongol armies and created a decimal-based system of organization, with a command structure that emphasized promotion based on ability (clan and tribe nobility remained important to society, but those that wished to command units and armies needed to earn those positions). Imperial Mongol armies were organized from the ground up, starting with units of ten mounted troopers (arban). Ten arban (100 men) made up a unit called a jagun, ten jagun (1,000 men) a minghan, and ten minghan (10,000 men) a tumen. Most Mongol field armies (ghar) consisted of two or three tumen (20-30,000 men), plus up to double that number of auxiliaries (for a total of 60-90,000 men). Contrary to the claims of many of their opponents—who tried to explain away Mongol military superiority—the Mongols often fought opponents who were numerically greater than their own forces (this was especially true in China, among the Turks, and in the Islamic world). It has been suggested (charitably) that the high mobility of Mongol troops, as well as the excellent coordination between the elements making up an army, simply made it seem to their opponents as if there were many more Mongols than there actually were present on any given battlefield (i.e., they seemed to be everywhere at once). Communication between units was maintained through the use of dispatch riders, flags (dalbaa), drums (naccara), or lanterns (for night operations), although field commanders were entrusted with considerable latitude to make impromptu command decisions as a battle developed. The standard tactic, used repeatedly to great effect by units at all levels of organization, was to make repeated hit-and-fade attacks on an opponent aimed at either drawing opposing units into disadvantageous positions (e.g., isolated and/or strung out and susceptible to encirclement), wearing them down to the point of breaking (Mongol armies would harry opponents, even while retreating, sometimes for days on end), and/or probing their formations until exploitable weaknesses could be found. They often used their greater mobility to outflank enemy formations (or entire armies) to hit them in the rear or sides. 

 

Still, the Mongols were not particularly innovative, their tactics and equipment not being radically different from those employed by most previous steppe nomads. As has been mentioned both here and in my notes for the Central Asian Turks, the Turks had a much more profound cultural legacy (after the initial Mongol conquests, Turkic language and culture quickly reasserted itself throughout much of Central and West Asia), and as I pointed out here, the professionalization of the Mongol army was probably inspired by (and possibly copied from) the Khitans (see my gallery and notes for the Khitans and the Hordes button below). What separated the Mongols from these others was the strategic scale of their operations, the high degree of organization on both tactical and strategic levels, the Mongols' ideological foundation that drove them toward the dream of universal empire (i.e., their unswerving belief in their own invincibility), and the professionalism of both average troopers and commanders at every level. The Mongols also showed themselves to be uniquely adaptable—much like the Romans, the Mongols seem to have had a genius for assimilating foreign experts and technologies to compensate for weaknesses in their own system (the Yuan Toluids and Ilkhans, in particular). Although Mongol armies were never entirely comfortable carrying out siege operations, they used Chinese and Muslim auxiliaries, slaves, technologies, and techniques to great effect, reducing many fortresses and cities formerly believed to be impregnable (e.g., the Assassin fortress of Alamut, the Abbasid capital city of Baghdad, the Russian city of Kiev, the Jurchen Kin capital city of Kaifeng, and the Song China cities of Chengdu, Xiangyang, and Fancheng). The Mongols acquired significant naval sophistication from the Chinese, and the use of advanced artillery from both the Chinese and the Muslims (Arabs, Persians, Turks). Although initially perplexed when faced with war elephants at the Battle of Ngasaunggyan (1277 CE), the Mongols promptly dismounted (horses greatly fear elephants) and fought the Burmese on foot, leading to a resounding Mongol victory (the Mongols went on to destroy several other elephant-strong Burmese armies, forcing the capitulation of Burma). Although this illustrates the Mongols' ability to adapt to defeat an unfamiliar combat system, war elephants were not subsequently adopted by the Mongols. Marco Polo reported that Kublai Khan (1215-1294 CE) had a huge war tower supported by four armored elephants, but the accuracy of this account has been questioned, and no other references are made to the Mongols using elephants in war (Kublai's command post would be pretty cool, if true, however). Indeed, when the Mongols invaded Kwarezmia, they captured a number of war elephants, but when Temujin heard how much fodder they required, he had them released onto the Kazakh steppes, where they promptly starved to death. This account has the ring of truth to it, and reveals that not even Temujin was infallible.

 

The figures I used here, from Legio Heroica and Khurasan Miniatures, are really well sculpted. Although the poses for the heavy cavalry are a little stiff, something I normally deplore, the detail on these sculpts is so good that I readily forgive the sculptor. And they work well for implying the discipline of such units. There is decent variation in the poses, the command figures are sufficiently commanding (I love the flaming spear totem), and with only some minor modifications I managed to get the look I wanted (I added alternating bands of silk-covered lamellae to some of the heavy cavalry, as well as bow-strings and arrows to the bows). I only wish they would have chosen to include some dismounted Mongols for use as commanders of auxiliaries (like Chinese or Muslim artillerists) and for those rare occasions the Mongols did dismount to fight. The only manufacturer I know that made dismounted Mongols is Old Glory 15s, and I may add some of these to this army at some point. Khurasan's light cavalry are, I think, gloriously dynamic. The tent (ger) for the camp, also an excellent sculpt, is from Baueda Miniatures.